Decision-making; ethics of care; interprofessional working; moral dissonance; moral distress; nursepatient relationships; professional ethics; qualitative research; virtue ethics. Chen S, Pan ZX, Zhu HJ, et al. As with any clinical innovation, FRT tools should be expected to demonstrate accuracy for specific uses and to demonstrate that overall benefits outweigh risks.26 Detecting and evaluating bias in data and results should also receive close ethical scrutiny.27 In machine learning, the quality of the results reflects the quality of data input to the system28an issue sometimes referred to as garbage in, garbage out. For example, when images used to train software are not drawn from a pool that is sufficiently racially diverse, the system may produce racially biased results.29 If this happens, FRT diagnostics might not work as well for some racial or ethnic groups as others. 101-336, 104 Stat 327. Development of a computer-aided tool for the pattern recognition of facial features in diagnosing Turner syndrome: comparison of diagnostic accuracy with clinical workers. The principle of utilitarianism invites us to consider the immediate and the less immediate consequences of our actions. For consequentialism, life is a numbers game; an action should aim to make the majority happy, regardless of who they are, and should aim to go for actions that produce minimal pain. . The meaning of CONSEQUENTIALISM is the theory that the value and especially the moral value of an act should be judged by the value of its consequences. It is not unreasonable to say that in this example you should pause your duck feeding and jump in to save the child. Consequentialism Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. 124). Tap here to review the details. The relatively small, single-site sample may not account for the effects of organisational culture on the results; the findings suggested that professional relationships were key to resolving ethical dilemmas. Medium. As Peter Railton says: The alienation of some individuals or groups from their milieu may at times be necessary for fundamental social criticism or cultural innovation (Alienation, Consequentialism and the Demands of Morality, Philosophy and Public Affairs 1984). Consequentialism Deontology (Biomedical Ethics) Charles Lohman. Now we will look at an example of how utilitarianism may be used in a medical context. 110-233, 122 Stat 881. The ethics of clinical innovation in psychopharmacology: challenging traditional bioethics. Furthermore, consumer-centred healthcare is becoming heavily reliant on digital technology. The issue here is that the advantages cannot balance out the likelihood of harm that would exist at the end of the day. LinkedIn and 3rd parties use essential and non-essential cookies to provide, secure, analyze and improve our Services, and (except on the iOS app) to show you relevant ads (including professional and job ads) on and off LinkedIn. The nature and extent of these effects, and whether they will be harmful or beneficial, will vary regionally and over time. Biom Technol Today. J Adv Nurs. In: Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 28th Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE); May 3-6, 2015; Halifax, Canada:1199-1202. This document is part of a series of papers intended to introduce This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Wellcome TrustFunded Monographs and Book Chapters. Epub 2011 Dec 6. As FRT becomes capable of detecting a wider range of health conditions, such as behavioral24 or developmental disorders,25 health care organizations and software developers will need to decide which types of analyses should be included in a FRT system and the conditions under which patients might need to be informed of incidental findings. Indeed, society as a whole is more important than any one person in the eyes of a Utilitarian. Julian Savulescu and Dominic Wilkinson 2019. All rights reserved. Clearly it is an abhorrent thought that an individual would be sacrificed simply to promote overall welfare in complete disregard for their life. Privacy and data protections are key to advancing FRT and making it helpful. Articles. Answer (1 of 4): The term 'consequentialism' was coined by the philosopher G E M Anscombe in her 1958 paper, 'Modern Moral Philosophy' (Philosophy 33, No. New technology may provide the answer. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. Changes in the Earth's climate can affect public health, agriculture, water supplies, energy production and use, land use and development, and recreation. Cachn-Prez JM, Gonzalez-Villanueva P, Rodriguez-Garcia M, Oliva-Fernandez O, Garcia-Garcia E, Fernandez-Gonzalo JC. Before According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. 13 FRT is also being applied to predict behavior, pain, and emotions by identifying facial expressions associated with depression or pain, for example. He noticed morality as an important part of daily life but also noticed there was no logical reason for following moral rules except for recognition from others or fear of punishment. Consequentialism entails that we can be held morally responsible for a lack of action, and whilst the case of the drowning child shows that it is possible to be indirectly responsible by not acting, in cases like Jims it involves going further than can be reasonably expected. This site uses cookies to recognize users and allow us to analyse site usage. This is not the greatest amount of happiness for the moral agent but the greatest amount of happiness overall - this is known as the greatest happiness principle. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Given its insistence on summing the benefits and harms of all people, utilitarianism asks us to look beyond self-interest to consider impartially the interests of all persons affected by our actions. ISSN 2376-6980. An objective measure of whether something is good or bad, and by how much. An example of consequentialism is utilitarianism. Rather than taking into account our own attitudes towards an action, by taking an objective standpoint we are able to remove ourselves from our usual social groups and ideologies which affect the way in which we act and look at a situation, and instead we should act without bias. According to this theory, it would be unethical for you to speed on an empty street at two oclock in the morning. In effect we become moral martyrs, surrendering our integrity (leading to alienation) in order to achieve what they believe is morally right. July 2, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html. Events and interactive experiences exploring ethics of being human. Accessed October 26, 2018. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Like above, what sorts of consequences are morally good and what sorts are morally bad need to be . The lack of respect for the integrity of the individual is raised by Bernard Williams' famous 'Jim and the . Aggregative Consequentialism = which consequences are best is some function of the values of parts of those consequences (as opposed to rankings of whole worlds or sets of consequences). Epub 2021 May 4. Daniel Schiff, MS and Jason Borenstein, PhD, Confidentiality/Duty to protect confidential information, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php, https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/, http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html, https://medcitynews.com/2016/01/aicure-fundraise/, https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app, https://medium.com/ibm-watson-data-lab/keeping-your-machine-learning-models-up-to-date-f1ead546591b, https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning, https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/, https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-algorithms-reveal-sexual-orientation-or-just-expose-our-stereotypes-d998fafdf477, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/, http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx, https://oneworldidentity.com/google-takes-aim-controversial-stringent-illinois-biometric-privacy-law/, https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. But in Jims case his pain at killing one person is a relatively minor consideration when the very lives of nineteen others (and the happiness of their families and friends) is at stake. Consequentialism is a rival to such moral theories as deontology, contractualism, and virtue ethics. Consequentialism in scenario. As the saga unfolds we are to monitor, measure and maximise the consequences for the greater good of the larger number. This is a worldview without tragedy or realism. 2013;118:1-9. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53501-6.00001-9. We will discuss three common ethical theories and how it handle the case of truth telling in medical practice as an example. Molteni M. Thanks to AI, computers can now see your health problems. The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. Key considerations included nursing's moral ontology, the nurse-patient relationship, potential impact on the profession, ethical principles and theories, moral culpability for acts versus omissions, the role of intention and the nature of the society in which euthanasia would be enacted. Also, it does not matter who performs the action, only the action itself as Williams example shows. A consequence of consequentialism, however, is that it fails to respect the integrity of the individuals involved. Whilst the drowning child example seems to support the existence of negative responsibility, it differs in that there are no commitments or beliefs preventing us from saving the child. arXiv. Counselling and bespoke consulting programs to help you make better decisions and navigate complexity. Findings: What matters in this example is saving the highest number of lives, and how this is attained is unimportant. Religion plays a large part in the ethical issue of abortion, just like with . Even if the damage to Jims integrity is taken into account, there is another problem: the consequentialist would regard Jims killing another person not merely as preferable, but as morally required. The final result was amazing, and I highly recommend www.HelpWriting.net to anyone in the same mindset as me. Information. More specifically, it protects the privacy of biometric data, including full-face photographs and any comparable images, which are directly related to an individual.37 Thus, facial images used for FRT health applications would be protected by HIPAA.38 Entities covered by HIPAA, including health care organizations, clinicians, and third-party business associates, would need to comply with HIPAA regulations regarding the use and disclosure of protected health information.38 However, clinicians should advise patients that there may be limited protections for storing and sharing data when using a consumer FRT tool. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Consequentialism Ethics Consequentialism focus on the outcome or consequence of the actions. 2022 Jan 6;10(1):12. doi: 10.3390/pharmacy10010012. Consequentialism focuses on promoting the best consequences, but what kind of consequences are the best? It is therefore important to weigh the relative benefits and burdens of specific FRT uses in health care and to conduct research into how patients perceive its use. Utilitarianism is one of the forms of consequentialism that states that everything has a consequence. VAD can have numerous negative health effects such as dryness of the eye that can lead to blindness if untreated, reduced immune system response, and an increase in the severity and mortality risk of infections. Looks like youve clipped this slide to already. Q: Roe v. Wade may soon be overturned by the Supreme Court, while at the same time other countries are loosening restrictions around abortion rights. Although there are references to this idea in the works of ancient philosopherEpicurus, its closely associated with English philosopherJeremy Bentham. Using the example of Jim and the Indians, Williams successfully illustrates that consequentialism fails to respect the integrity of the individual because in deciding what is wrong or right what really matters is not the action but the outcome of it. Atlas of human malformation syndromes in diverse populations. New York, NY: New York University Press; 2011. In broad terms, a hedonist is someone who tries to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. April 11, 2017. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/. Nurses require the skills to develop and maintain professional relationships for addressing ethical dilemmas and to engage with political and organisational macro- and micro-decision-making. iEthics: An Interprofessional Ethics Curriculum. The viewpoints expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. Epub 2020 Mar 30. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Sandolu A. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the This chapter outlines core characteristics of Utilitarianism and explores them with regard to their significance in healthcare settings. In this example: A hospital has limited capacity to deal with Covid-19 patients and is having to decide between admitting a 20 year old patient, who is fit and well, and a 75 year old patient, who has a history of heart disease, to their last available ventilator. Facial recognition technology (FRT) utilizes software to map a persons facial characteristics and then store the data as a face template.1 Algorithms or machine learning techniques are applied to a database to compare facial images or to find patterns in facial features for verification or authentication purposes.2 FRT is attractive for a variety of health care applications, such as diagnosing genetic disorders, monitoring patients, and providing health indicator information (related to behavior, aging, longevity, or pain experience, for example).3-5, FRT is likely to become a useful tool for diagnosing many medical and genetic conditions.6,7 Machine learning techniques, in which a computer program is trained on a large data set to recognize patterns and generates its own algorithms on the basis of learning,8 have already been used to assist in diagnosing a patient with a rare genetic disorder that had not been identified after years of clinical effort.9 Machine learning can also detect more subtle correlations between facial morphology and genetic disorders than clinicians.4 It is thought that FRT can therefore eventually be used to assist in earlier detection and treatment of genetic disorders,10,11 and computer applications (commonly known as apps) such as Face2Gene have been developed to assist clinicians in diagnosing genetic disorders.12, FRT has other potential health care applications. Data Lab. such as consequentialism, virtue ethics . Why facial recognition is the future of diagnostics. In: Philosophical Foundations of Medical Law. Accessed July 17, 2018. PMC Borsos Z, Gyori M. Can automated facial expression analysis show differences between autism and typical functioning? Published April 25, 2018. Killing the one Indian is going to have a profound effect on Jims life but for the consequentialist, Jims values are irrelevant. http://arxiv.org/abs/1403.0485. All Rights Reserved. Patient privacy. Nurses' tension-based ethical decision making in rural acute care settings. One doctor speaking to the Business Insider claimed: "If you had, let's say, an ICU that was overwhelmed, you're probably going to try and give some extra attention to healthcare workers because you need them to deliver care," he said. This structure means that the ends often justify the means when seeking to create a specific result. Consequentialism is a type of normative ethical theory which states that the moral quality of an action is completely determined by its consequences, and nothing else. The legal and ethical concerns that arise from using complex predictive analytics in health care. MedCity News. and transmitted securely. May 17, 2017. https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/. Discussion: To identify the values, beliefs and contextual influences that inform decision-making. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press; 2019. 1828 Words8 Pages. Utilitarians claim that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness and that what is desirable is pleasure and the freedom from pain. Wicklund E. EHR provider touts mHealth access by Apples facial recognition app. It is frequently maintained that an exclusively consequentialist morality uniquely possesses certain advantages; I shall argue that the case for the superiority of consequentialism has yet to be made out. Consequentialism's definition merely. It is one of the main causes of preventable blindness in young children from developing countries. Examining hospital staff members' preferences for allocating a ventilator to a COVID-19 patient with and without Alzheimer's disease. March 21, 2017. http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data. Published March 3, 2014. National Library of Medicine Because it counted every persons pleasure or pain as the same, regardless of age, wealth, race, etc. (Cf. Never kill an innocent person or never lie are examples of such rules. From a consequentialist point of view it doesnt matter who commits the murder, merely the amount of lives lost in the end, so Jim would be just as responsible for the deaths as the captain is surely an absurd outcome. Deontology is a system of ethical analysis, most closely associated with Immanuel Kant, that bases the correctness of one's actions on fulfilling the duties of the actor (Alexander and Moore, 2008).Thus individuals have moral obligations to others and, if they fulfill those obligations, they are acting ethically; if they . Stephen ID, Hiew V, Coetzee V, Tiddeman BP, Perrett DI. Some statutes that protect health information might not apply to FRT. consequentialism can give us an account of responsibility. Consequentialism is a theory that says whether something is good or bad depends on its outcomes. Consequentialism From a consequentialist position the question of whether it is wrong to breach confidentiality is determined by the consequences of the breach. He even developed a calculator to work out which actions were better or worse the felicific calculus. (Feiser) Consequentialism says that the consequences of an action are all that matter when taking an ethical decision to act. Epub 2015 Jan 6. In this way, consequentialism ethics provide criteria for the moral evaluation of actions, while also recommending rules or decision-making criteria for future actions. In practice this a very difficult thing to do to step outside of the values we have been brought up with and the state of being alienated itself often causes unhappiness within the individual. One World Identity. Use of facial recognition technology for medical purposes: balancing privacy with innovation. and hey presto! Keywords: There will need to be careful thought and study of the broader impact of FRT in health care settings. But as previously stated, war and the strife and chaos that comes with it are undesirable; however, in this particular circumstance something that may be bad as war can be said to be a for a good cause. But it's more than just one rival among many, for every plausible moral theory must concede that the goodness of an act's consequences is something that matters even if it's not the only thing that matters. Pharmacy (Basel). Join us! If all we are concerned with is getting good outcomes, this can seem to justify harming some people in order to benefit others. When a service user is speaking to a health care professional it is important for them to listen properly, for example not looking around and yawning, instead make eye contact and ensuring body language looks engaging. You can read the details below. The most famous version of this theory is utilitarianism. Now, if the foreign power does intervene on the basis of humanitarian concerns to liberate the minority from the reign of terror that subjects to such misery and death, war becomes a necessary and moral objective on part of the foreign power to liberate the minority people. Informed consent. Clinical Informatics News. Medical law exists at the intersection between consequentialism and deontology. Machine learning and the profession of medicine. Consequentialism refers to a group of ethical theories that hold an act or institution to be right if it yields the most desirable effects of consequences. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. Youve read one of your four complimentary articles for this month. You must explain the key principles of providing care, showing an understanding of the skills and attributes required by those professionals who meet the care and support needs of individuals. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital. Relationships among moral reasoning, coping style, and ethics stress. The foregoing are just a sample of the ethical approaches a healthcare professional may adopt in practice and it may be argued that there are three main moral theories from which these approaches may, in part, spring, namely virtue ethics, deontology and consequentialism. PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Consequentialism, Deontology, Physical Education and Health Education Faculty. "The rationale isn't that they're more worthy; it's that they can contribute in the longer run to saving more lives.". When deciding on questions of what is ethically right or wrong utilitarians want to maximise the overall amount of happiness or welfare. consequentialism, In ethics, the doctrine that actions should be judged right or wrong on the basis of their consequences. Is it better to give my money to charity or spend it studying medicine so I can save lives? The question that concerns me, is, to what extent is a normative theory, consequentialism in particular, constrained by requirements that stem from J Med Ethics. Consumerism in healthcare is not merely about supporting hospitals, insurance companies and other businesses. Watson M. Keeping your machine learning models up-to-date: continuous learning with IBM Watson machine learning (part 1). Even if nobody would be hurt, our speeding laws mean less people are harmed overall. It gives us this guidance when faced with a moral dilemma: A person should choose the action that maximises good consequences. The site is secure. Do not sell or share my personal information, 1. If happiness was the experience of pleasure without pain, the most ethical actions were ones that caused the most possible happiness and the least possible pain. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. The .gov means its official. For the consequentialist it is obvious that the right choice for Jim would be to kill one Indian in order to save the lives of the other nineteen. Especially in India the incidence of birth defects, cancers and diseases related to skin, lungs, brain, kidneys and liver are several times more dominant than any other communities.8 The river drainage has significant influence on the land use and socio-economic fabric of the basin. Deontological Ethics. Utilitarianism (also called consequentialism) is a moral theory developed and refined in the modern world in the writings of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). A heavy man in a sweat-stained khaki shirt turns out to be the captain in charge and, after a good deal of questioning of Jim which establishes that he got there by accident while on a botanical expedition, explains that the Indians are a random group of the inhabitants who, after recent acts of protest against the government, are just about to be killed to remind other possible protestors of the advantages of not protesting. government site. Christianity is one form of deontology and the Ten Commandments represent one set of rules. 14,15 Another major area for FRT applications in health care is patient identification and monitoring, such . One of the consequences of a breach of confidentiality could be that the patient will lose trust in JONAS Healthc Law Ethics Regul. Particularly in Italy, where the death toll and strain on hospitals has reached a critical point, there is a policy now to prioritise treating younger patients and healthcare workers. Learn more in our Cookie Policy. Provide a clear and easy-to-understand guidelines. Bias. We've updated our privacy policy. Accessed August 1, 2018. January 9, 2017. https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/. The other way of thinking about the relationship is the focus of this paper. An official website of the United States government. Roughly speaking, the consequentialist believes that outcomes are all that matter, and that people should therefore endeavor to act so as to produce the best consequences, based on an impartial perspective as to what is best. Recognition of the Cornelia de Lange syndrome phenotype with facial dysmorphology novel analysis. However, having evolved from a set of Christian values and principles, it retains certain deontological characteristics. If Jim accepts, then as a special mark of the occasion, the other Indians will be let off. As with any new health technology, careful attention should be paid to the accuracy and validity of FRT used in health care applications as well as to informed consent and reporting incidental findings to patients. Through alienating ourselves Railton shows that adopting ones exclusive ultimate end in life in the pursuit of maximum happiness may well prevent one from having experiences or engaging in certain sorts of commitments that are among the greatest sources of happiness (Alienation, Consequentialism and the Demands of Morality, Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1984). Our work is only made possible because of you. Our duty to others can be illustrated using another example, one used by contemporary utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer. Design: But if telling a lie. Accessed July 24, 2018. Washington Post. MIT Technology Review. Something is then considered "wrong" if it creates the opposite reaction. . For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. Would you like email updates of new search results? Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Bina RW, Langevin JP. Tied up against the wall are a row of twenty Indians, most terrified, a few defiant, in front of them several armed men in uniform. There are several varieties of utilitarianism. Gates KA. FOIA Tunkelang D. Ten things everyone should know about machine learning. A novel approach to the detection of acromegaly: accuracy of diagnosis by automatic face classification. Abortion can be categorized as both a legal, and ethical issue. 2020 Feb;27(1):258-272. doi: 10.1177/0969733019832941. Participants were recruited from all settings working with patients of any age and any diagnosis. Bookshelf Disclaimer. By signing up you agree to our privacy policy. Many utilitarians take a hedonistic approach, saying that utility equates to happiness, so we should act to produce the greatest happiness, and to minimize pain and unhappiness. Should Electronic Health Record-Derived Social and Behavioral Data Be Used in Precision Medicine Research? Consequentialism is the theory in moral philosophy that says our actions should aim at producing the best consequences. There are two broad schools of ethical theory: consequentialism and non-consequentialism. For example, if I have the choice between saving one of my two cats, Benjy and Oliver, from a house fire, I should save the cat that would produce the most utility over the other one. Nurs Ethics. health. If the outcome is good, how one achieved the outcome is not that important. Abbasinia M, Norouzadeh R, Adib-Hajbaghery M, Nasiri MA, Sharifipour E, Koohpaei A, Eskandari N, Aghaie B. Whenever we are faced with a decision, an act consequentialist will expect us to ask that question. Given the exhaustion of most, if not all, negotiation and compromise within a diplomatic and political framework, the minority have two options: 1) rebellion till death; 2) subjugation till death. According to consequentialism, you should always strive to bring about good consequences, rather than simply obeying an arbitrary set of ethical rules. 01 December 2016. B. Consequentialism- main emphasis is on the outcome or consequence of the action .